Therefore, argument, unlike logic, is an audience oriented process. This requires audience adaptation and development of credibility in addition to developing good, reasonable claims and supporting reasons. Argument requires audience adaptation.
Arguers must keep in mind that not all arguments are persuasive to all audiences. Additionally, some techniques might be more successful than others for specific audiences: professionals are more likely to want polished, analytical, logical presentations, whereas protestors are more likely to want highly charged, emotive argument that rallies moral indignation for their cause. Argument requires establishing credibility. Credibility, as classical rhetoricians recognize, involves intelligence, character, and goodwill.
Intelligence means having knowledge of your subject and arguing in a clear, logical fashion. Character means displaying traits your audience admires—like honesty, sincerity, integrity, and moral commitment.
Goodwill means treating your audience with respect, putting your case in terms they can understand, and acknowledging their points of view. Aristotle notes that credibility is often the controlling factor in persuasion; if the audience does not perceive the speaker as credibile, then the audience will not be as attentive to the message itself.
Written argument can be referenced again and again. Titles and subtitles give readers a preview of what is to come, aiding comprehension of their reading. The exact phrasing of oral argument disappears as soon as it is spoken. Consequently, listeners often understand oral arguments only in fragments rather in their totality. As a result, very complex arguments are difficult to develop orally. Oral argument intimately involves the human body.
Pitch, rate, gesture, and tone of voice, are all forms of nonverbal communication that introduce the potential for misunderstandings. Written argument generally is clearer. Consequently, the friction that is possible from verbal interaction plays a large role in mis understanding. Argument, while based in logic, is ultimately an exercise in language. Thus, argument is not exclusively the study of deductive or inductive reasoning—these are tasks reserved for philosophical inquiry.
Instead, argument investigates the communicative aspects of reasoning. Arguments can be divided into four general components: claim, reason, support, and warrant. Claims are statements about what is true or good or about what should be done or believed. Claims are potentially arguable.
No one can really dispute whether I liked the book or not, but one can argue about the benefits of liberal arts. Reasons are statements that support a given claim, making a claim more than a mere assertion.
Juan is buying flowers for his mother. He wants to buy 3 times as many carnations as roses and plans to spend all of his money on flowers. Write a system of equations to. I am writing a comparison essay how Miley cyrus song the climb argument is better than katy perry fireworks. I need help finishing my conclusion. Ellis focuses more intensively on the plight of the slaves than that of the Indians, but he does point out that Washington addressed their situation with the suggestion that they abandon their hunter-gatherer way of life and assimilate themselves into the.
On a chart what are the arguments for and against American expansion to the Pacific even at the expense of the war with Mexico in the 's. I need help understanding inductive and deductive arguments and stated and unstated premises. Thank you. What is the distinction between deductive and inductive arguments?
Give an example of each to make your explanation clearer. Consider the N weight held by two cables shown below. In the American justice system a jury hear final arguments before retiring to a separate room to deliberate privately. I need to present arguments for and against imperialism in the 19th century and state if it was UN-American or not.
Are the following sentences figurative language: "With lies well steel'd with weighty arguments. May i get some help on this question? I think its C. In in film of by George Orwell, which detail of the text is emphasized through the actions of the actor portraying Winston? A the poverty that surrounds Winston B the exhaustion that Winston feels. A couple questions here: 1. How do you expect nitriding to change the properties of iron?
To what extent should we embrace the perspectives reflected in the. Examining reasons and constructing arguments can help in Points : 1 everyday life. All of the above. I am writing my essays and I wrote them but i not know how to start the beginnings of them. From the book how to kill a mockingbird. Write a. What makes all living things different What makes up the code for all humans DNA. I need a thesis statement that contains 3 different points causes, effects, arguments about steroids. Someone please helpppppp.
What are some of the arguments in favor of and against victim involvement in the criminal justice system? Sue, can you help me with my last sentence of intro about what three arguments. I am going to talk about in my body paragraphs. Here is the brief outline that I created. Outline: Intro: make my position Pro side of the topic 1st point: I think richer countries should take care of poorer countries because they have the resources and the ability to do so and they should use it to.
Two plus three makes five. Two muptiplied by three makes six. Two divided by two makes two. Are the English expressions correct? Do you have. How should we judge between the altruism and the egoism? What evidence or arguments might adjudicate between these two positions?
How might we try to combine them? Discuss arguments in favor of and against using this model as a national perspective on preventing divorce. I have three arguments in my introduction and I need a transitition to my first paragraph which is my first argument. I'm not too sure how to write a transistion sentance. And since it will contain both supporters and detractors, it is essential that your position be clearly stated. It is the foundation upon which each brick of your evidence will be stacked and must be strong enough to bear its own weight as well as the onslaught of opposing arguments.
Position statements fall into categories and those categories suggest how a claim should be argued. Your position, knowledge and authority on the subject will help you decide which category best suits the argument's purpose. Before selecting one, however, consider your audience. Which side are they likely to be on or will they be split down the middle? How informed are they?
Where lays the largest difference of opinion? Is the issue emotionally charged? If so, how will the audience react? The answers you come up with will help determine what type of position will be most effective and what to include in the introduction, the type of evidence to be presented and how the presentation should be organized. Claims of fact present verifiable forms of evidence as the supporting foundation for an inferred position statement. In other words, a claim that that which can not be proven by actual facts is, in fact, true or real based on facts that are somewhat pertinent to the issue.
For example, the position statement that "grades measure neither intelligence nor achievement," backed with factual evidence like test scores, duplicable research findings and personal testimony. Claims of fact notwithstanding, the statement can't actually be proven. Intelligence and achievement measurements are, at best, subjective terms that challenge hard definitions. No amount of factual evidence is going to change that. Nailing down the terms of the position with objective, concrete definitions will strengthen the statement but be advised that an inferred position is poor foundation on which to build an argument.
Claims of cause and effect are propositions based on the concept that one thing influences or causes another. For example, "rap music makes its audience members prone to violence. It must define rap, the kinds of rap that lead to violence and the ways in which it does so. It must also define the forms of violence that pertain to rap and conclusively attribute the effect to the cause.
Specific incidents of violence must be cited and tied directly back to specific occurrences in which it can be proven that rap played a significant role. Claims of value inherently involve a judgment based on comparing and contrasting one position with another and assigning each a value of good or bad, better or worse. For example, "Danielle Steele is the best romance novelist of the last quarter century. To build an argument on such a claim the criteria by which the judgment will be made as well as the manner in which the person, thing, situation or circumstance being assessed must be established.
Elements similar to claims of fact, such as sales figures, publication statistics and awards will come into play. For Danielle Steele to be judged the best romance novelist of the last quarter century, it has to be proven that she meets the established criteria for a good romance novelist and that she does it better than all other romance novelists from the same time period.
Claims of policy or solutions propose and promote policies and solutions based on changing an existing policy that is either inadequate for dealing with a bad situation or conducive to its perpetuation. For example, "Football causes too many injuries and ought to be banned.
Arguing such a claim may require arguing a combination of claims and several steps might be involved: A factual claim establishing that a situation exists, a value claim proving the situation is bad, and a cause and effect claim pinning the blame on a policy that, if changed, will improve the situation may all play a role in the overall argument.
Be advised that proposing a solution carries the inherent suggestion that more than one solution may apply. An argument successfully advocating your position must establish the criteria by which all solutions will be measured and prove that yours meets that criteria better than any other.
A clearly stated position demands parameters, or boundaries, narrow enough to avoid any tangential digression that might detract from the argument's power. In other words, to be effective, the author must identify a narrow enough position that proving or drawing a conclusion from the argument that follows won't become bogged down in the side-bar arguments a broader statement might stimulate. The key to identifying a clear position is in the old adage of not biting off more than you can chew.
In a courtroom it's called opening the door to testimony previously excluded. A broad position statement invites disaster by opening doors to counter-arguments that you are unprepared for and have no intention of addressing.
It muddies the argument. This statement is so broad it would take a book, and possibly several, to argue the point. You'd need a wide variety of everyday examples from the lives of those who lived during a significant number of major and minor historical events just to come close to a plausible proof, let alone a conclusive one.
The statement bites off more than one can chew. Having reached adulthood, college students are no longer in need of such incentives and ought to be evaluated more qualitatively, through written evaluations at the end of each semester. There are two arguments to be made here: 1 as an incentive, letter grades obscure whether true learning occurs, and 2 written evaluations are more valuable and useful than letter grades.
Again, the statement constitutes more than a mouthful. Each position could be a paper in itself. Grading objectively, therefore, is impossible. This is a vague statement based upon an implied assumption that, to be fair, all assessment forms must be objective.
To prove this, all forms of assessment would have to be compared and contrasted and their use across all campus curriculums examined. In-class essays, mid-term papers, lab projects, field work, class discussions, multiple-choice and true-false tests would have to be included. Another mouthful too big to chew: A better option would be to select one form of assessment and build an argument constrained within a single curriculum.
For all practical purposes, it's useful to view a position statement as a "work-in-progress," a statement that evolves or emerges as your research progresses. It's not necessary that you begin with an ironclad position. A vague idea will do. As you learn more about your selected-or assigned-issue, you may find your stance changing. Keep an open mind in this regard: It will help you clarify and focus your final position on a narrow and arguable point.
Following are some useful tips that will help you in the process. Don't bore yourself. Choose a topic around which there are issues that interest you and don't worry about defining your position.
A good topic is one that arouses passion in others as well as yourself. Consult your course notes and make a list of ideas that appear to have the most potential by answering a few simple questions:. Do some broad preliminary research on your selected topic.
Ask your instructor, as well as others in your field of study, for information and guidance. To grasp the complexities and nuances of the issues at hand, select a group of books and articles that approach your topic from different angles and study up on them. Note your reactions and opinions as they occur and develop or mature. In particular, you will want to note when previously held opinions change as a result of knowledge and insight gained from recent readings or discussion.
Hone in on those opinions about which your feel the strongest or interest you the most. Begin drafting a preliminary statement. Keep in mind that your position must be arguable. When shaping it consider the following questions:. Finally, the best advice is to be constantly aware of the arguments you wish not to address and continually refine your preliminary statement so as to exclude having to argue them. In other words, as you move toward completing your research, close and bolt all the doors you don't want the opposition stumbling through.
Getting off to a good start can make or break you, which is why your introduction is so important. It must be both respectful of the audience-not all of whom are going to be on your side-and compelling enough for them to withhold judgment while hearing you out.
Think about throwing a dinner party: Your guests are the audience. You plan a menu and set the table. Your introduction should put your guests on common ground-at ease with each other-before the main course, your argument, is served.
When dinner is over, your argument made, your guests stay on for coffee and dessert, your conclusion. The introduction establishes an argument's context: it informs the audience of the issue at hand, the prevailing arguments from opposing sides and the position held by the author. It sets the tone for the argument and establishes the disciplinary constraints and boundaries that your particular academic audience will expect.
There are many ways to provide context for an audience but the main thing is to get everyone on an equal footing, a starting point where everyone has equal knowledge of the issue. One of the best ways to accomplish this is by proposing a common definition of the issue.
Another is to begin with a literature review of past work, showing where and how your position has emerged from previous work and how it enters into or contributes to that conversation. One way to create a context for your readers and establish common ground is to begin with a definition of the topic that everyone can share and then introduce an issue based on the common definition. For example:. Offering a brief summary of previously published work demonstrates how well versed you are in both your academic discipline and the issue at hand.
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